10.1162/108819802320971650 1 1 Journal of Industrial Ecology 89 - 105 1 http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/108819802320971650?prevSearch=allfield%3A%28van+oss+padovani%29 6 2002 2 8251913179 2 Tapir Trondheim 1998 ECOS 2002, 15th International Conference on Efficiency, Costs, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy Systems 3 The paper actually comes in two parts, with one located at:http://teide.cps.unizar.es:8080/pub/publicir.nsf/codigos/0275/$FILE/cp0275.pdf and the other located at:http://teide.cps.unizar.es:8080/pub/publicir.nsf/codigos/0276/$FILE/cp0276.pdf 4 http://teide.cps.unizar.es:8080/pub/publicir.nsf/codigos/0275/$FILE/cp0275.pdf 2002 To study the potential effects of increased biofuel use, we evaluated six representative analyses of fuel ethanol. Studies that reported negative net energy incorrectly ignored coproducts and used some obsolete data. All studies indicated that current corn ethanol technologies are much less petroleum-intensive than gasoline but have greenhouse gas emissions similar to those of gasoline. However, many important environmental effects of biofuel production are poorly understood. New metrics that measure specific resource inputs are developed, but further research into environmental metrics is needed. Nonetheless, it is already clear that large-scale use of ethanol for fuel will almost certainly require cellulosic technology. 10.1126/science.1121416 4 Science 506-508 1 http://www.scienceonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/311/5760/506 311 2006 5 0 080444 10 5 6 5 Elsevier Oxford http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/default/launches/ser04/ser04.asp 2004 The human population and its consumption profoundly affect the Earth's ecosystems. A particularly compelling measure of humanity's cumulative impact is the fraction of the planet's net primary production that we appropriate for our own use. Net primary production--the net amount of solar energy converted to plant organic matter through photosynthesis--can be measured in units of elemental carbon and represents the primary food energy source for the world's ecosystems. Human appropriation of net primary production, apart from leaving less for other species to use, alters the composition of the atmosphere, levels of biodiversity, energy flows within food webs and the provision of important ecosystem services. Here we present a global map showing the amount of net primary production required by humans and compare it to the total amount generated on the landscape. We then derive a spatial balance sheet of net primary production 'supply' and 'demand' for the world. We show that human appropriation of net primary production varies spatially from almost zero to many times the local primary production. These analyses reveal the uneven footprint of human consumption and related environmental impacts, indicate the degree to which human populations depend on net primary production 'imports' and suggest policy options for slowing future growth of human appropriation of net primary production. 10.1038/nature02619 6 429 Nature 870 - 873 1 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v429/n6994/abs/nature02619.html;jsessionid=E4A08F9BB2FE6A6AD9EB26423FDFB2B4 2004 7 92-5-005151-4 4 5 Rome http://www.fao.org/statistics/yearbook/ 2004 8 2 6 http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/energy_systems/footprints.html 9 1 Hydrocarbon Processing 57 - 64 1 Washington, D.C. http://www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/ 85 2006 10 4 Hydrocarbon Processing 1 http://www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/ 78 1999 Report Number: DOE/EIA-0484(2007) IEO2007 will be available on the EIA Home Page (http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html) by July 2007, including text, forecast tables, and graphics. To download the entire publication in Portable Document Format (PDF), go to\http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/pdf/0484(2007).pdf. 11 5 5 http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html 2006 12 Need to find out what Wes's subscription type was, and if he kept track of original numbers 7 7 Paris http://www.iea.org/Textbase/stats/index.asp 13 8 5 USGS Reston, VA http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2006/mcs2006.pdf 2006 14 7 5 International Energy Agency Paris http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/ 2005 This paper presents the first global estimate of lighting energy use, costs, and associated greenhouse-gas emissions. Based on a compilation of estimates for 38 countries representing approximately 63 % of the world’s population, we develop a model for predicting lighting electricity use for other countries where data are lacking. The corresponding lighting-related electricity production for the year 1997 is 2016 TWh (21103 Petajoules), equal to the output of about 1000 electric power plants, and valued at about $185 billion per year. Global lighting electricity use is distributed approximately 28 % to the residential sector, 48 % to the service sector, 16% to the industrial sector, and 8 % to street and other lighting. The corresponding carbon dioxide emissions are 1775 million metric tonnes per year. Lighting electricity demand in the 23 International Energy Agency (IEA) countries represents approximately half of the world’s total lighting use. Our parallel examination of global fuel-based household lighting suggests that it represents an amount of primary energy of 3600 PJ ($48 billion), equal to 115 % (160 %) of that used to provide household electric lighting in all IEA countries. Although one in three people obtain light with kerosene and other fuels, representing about 20 % of global lighting costs, they receive only 1 % of the resulting lighting energy services.\While collecting end-use energy data is arguably not a high national priority in most countries, this lack of attention is particularly problematic in this instance given that lighting is usually a preferred target for energy savings campaigns and policies. Without such data, precise scenarios of future lighting electricity demand cannot be developed. Improved work in this area seems merited given our estimated global savings potential of $75–115 billion/year. 5th International Conference on Energy-Efficient Lighting 15 also hosted at: http://eetd.lbl.gov/emills/PUBS/PDF/Global_Lighting_Energy.pdf 4 http://www.eceee.org/conference_proceedings/RL5/session_15/mills/ 2002 16 7 5 Paris http://www.iea.org/Textbase/work/2002/WSSD/transportation.pdf 2002 Report Number:EPA530-R-99-009" "18 17 9 5 http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/compost/biosolid.pdf 1999 Exergy is used as a common currency to assess and compare the reservoirs of theoretically extractable work we call energy resources. Resources consist of matter or energy with properties different from the predominant conditions in the environment. These differences can be classified as physical, chemical, or nuclear exergy. This paper identifies the primary exergy reservoirs that supply exergy to the biosphere and quantifies the intensive and extensive exergy of their derivative secondary reservoirs, or resources. The interconnecting accumulations and flows among these reservoirs are illustrated to show the path of exergy through the terrestrial system from input to its eventual natural or anthropogenic destruction. The results are intended to assist in evaluation of current resource utilization, help guide fundamental research to enable promising new energy technologies, and provide a basis for comparing the resource potential of future energy options that is independent of technology and cost. 10.1016/j.energy.2005.09.006 19 12 Energy This URL: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544205001805 came from Google Scholar and pointed to the abstract on scienceDirect. Hopefully we can post the file. 1 http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544205001805 31 2006 The long-term carbon cycle operates over millions of years and involves the exchange of carbon between rocks and the Earth's surface. There are many complex feedback pathways between carbon burial, nutrient cycling, atmospheric carbon dioxide and oxygen, and climate. New calculations of carbon fluxes during the Phanerozoic eon (the past 550 million years) illustrate how the long-term carbon cycle has affected the burial of organic matter and fossil-fuel formation, as well as the evolution of atmospheric composition. 10.1038/nature02131 20 6964 Nature 323-326 1 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v426/n6964/abs/nature02131.html 426 2003 Field, C. and Raupach, M. 21 1-55963-526-6 There is an older version (1979) online at:\http://www.icsu-scope.org/downloadpubs/scope13/contents.html 11 2 Island Press Washington, DC 2004 10.1016/0016-7037(66)90104-9 22 2 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 153-158 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V66-488Y4GG-191&_user=10&_coverDate=02%2F28%2F1966&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=83638f54713ac208b05cf229312adbe3 30 1966 An improved version of the global hydrodynamic tide solutions [finite element solutions (FESs) FES94, FES95.2.1, and FES98] has been developed, implemented, and validated. The new model is based on the resolution of the tidal barotropic equations on a global finite element grid without any open boundary condition, which leads to solutions independent of in situ data (no open boundary conditions and no assimilation). The accuracy of these “free” solutions is improved by assimilating tide gauge and TOPEX/Poseidon (T/P) altimeter information through a representer assimilation method. This leads to the FES99 version of this model. For the eight main constituents of the tidal spectrum (M2, S2, N2, K2, 2N2, K1, O1, and Q1), about 700 tide gauges and 687 T/P altimetric measurements are assimilated. An original algorithm is developed to calculate the tidal harmonic constituents at crossover points of the T/P altimeter database. Additional work is performed for the S2 wave by reconsidering the inverse barometer correction. To complete the spectrum, 19 minor constituents have been added by admittance. The accuracy of FES99 is evaluated against the former FESs. First, it is compared to two tide gauge datasets: ST95 (95 open-ocean measurements) and ST739 (739 coastal measurements). For ST95, the root-sum square of the differences between observations and solutions is reduced from 2.8 (FES95.2.1) to 2.4 cm (FES99), a gain of 17% in overall accuracy. Second, the variance of the sea surface variability is calculated and compared for FES95.2.1, FES98, and FES99 at the T/P and the European Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS-2) crossover data points. FES99 performed best, with a residual standard deviation for the independent ERS-2 dataset of 13.5 cm (15.2 cm for FES95.2.1). Third, tidal predictions are implemented for the FESs to provide along-track estimates of the sea surface variability for T/P and ERS-2. Compared to ERS-2, FES99 residuals are 11.8 cm (12.4 cm for FES95.2.1). All the accuracy tests show that FES99 is a significant improvement compared to former FESs both in the deep ocean and along coasts. 10.1175/1520-0426(2002)019<1345:FAGTFE>2.0.CO;2 23 9 Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology This citation is for the paper that develops the model. Wes may have actually implemented the model in Matlab, and run it to get various numbers. 1345–1356 1 http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175%2F1520-0426(2002)019%3C1345:FAGTFE%3E2.0.CO%3B2 19 2002 This was a report commissioned by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Industrial Technology 24 DOE Report Number: DOE OIT 71563 Final CL10543 12 5 http://www.steamingahead.org/library/adlittle.pdf 2000 This article presents the Iron and Steel Industry Model (ISIM). This is a world simulation model able to analyze the evolution of the industry from 1997 to 2030, focusing on steel production, demand, trade, energy consumption, CO2 emissions, technology dynamics, and retrofitting options. In the context of the Kyoto Protocol on climate change, the potential impacts of a CO2 emission market (e.g. the gains in terms of compliance costs, the country trading position, the evolution of the technology and the energy mixes) are also addressed. In particular, three emission trading scenarios are considered: an EU15 market, an enlarged EU market, and an Annex B market. 10.1016/j.energy.2004.05.022 25 5 Energy 583-610 1 http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544204002919 30 2005 Soil respiration is the primary path by which CO2fixed by land plants returns to the atmosphere. Estimated at approximately 75 √ó 1015gC/yr, this large natural flux is likely to increase due changes in the Earth's condition. The objective of this paper is to provide a brief scientific review for policymakers who are concerned that changes in soil respiration may contribute to the rise in CO2in Earth's atmosphere. Rising concentrations of CO2in the atmosphere will increase the flux of CO2from soils, while simultaneously leaving a greater store of carbon in the soil. Traditional tillage cultivation and rising temperature increase the flux of CO2from soils without increasing the stock of soil organic matter. Increasing deposition of nitrogen from the atmosphere may lead to the sequestration of carbon in vegetation and soils. The response of the land biosphere to simultaneous changes in all of these factors is unknown, but a large increase in the soil carbon pool seems unlikely to moderate the rise in atmospheric CO2during the next century. 10.1023/A:1006247623877 26 1 Biogeochemistry 7-20 1 http://www.springerlink.com/content/h91377p45l414070/ 48 2000 The food and agriculture system is among the largest anthropogenic activities in terms of appropriation of land and biological primary production, as well as alteration of the grand biogeochemical cycles of carbon, water, and nitrogen. Despite its importance in these respects, physically coherent descriptions and analyses of the food and agriculture system regarding the total turnover of fundamental flows (such as biomass) and resource use and efficiency of critical processes (such as animal food production) are relatively scarce. This article presents a survey of the current flows of biomass in the food and agriculture system. The survey gives a mass- and energy-balanced description of biomass from its production on cropland and grassland through its transformations into animal and vegetable food products to its final conversion into respiratory heat, feces, and other residues. This assessment was carried out by means of a physical model that, for eight world regions, calculates the necessary production of crops and other phytomass (plant biomass) from a prescribed end use of food, efficiency in food production and processing, and use of system-internal by-products and residues as feed, feedstock, and food. The global appropriation of terrestrial phytomass production by the food system was estimated to be some 13 Pg (1.43 √ó 1010 short tons) dry matter, or 230 EJ (2.18 √ó 1017 Btu) gross energy (higher heating value), per year in 1992-1994. Of this phytomass, about 8% ended up in food commodities eaten. Animal food systems accounted for roughly two-thirds of the total appropriation of phytomass, whereas their contribution to the human diet was about 13% (both on a gross energy basis). The ruminant meat systems were found to have a far greater influence than any other subsystem on the food system's biomass metabolism, primarily because of the lower feed-conversion efficiency (calculated as carcass produced by total feed intake, including pasture and other human-inedible feedstuffs) of those systems. 10.1162/108819803766729195 27 1 Journal of Industrial Ecology 47-80 1 http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/108819803766729195 7 2003 Charcoal constitutes the primary urban fuel in most of Africa and is a major source of income and environmental degradation in rural areas. The production, transport and combustion of charcoal constitutes a critical energy and economic cycle in the economies of many developing nations. Far from decreasing, the use of charcoal has remained constant or grown in many countries. Because of this, it is critical to assess and to develop long-range charcoal policies for African and other developing nations. In this paper, we review the current status of biomass harvesting and transport for charcoal production, efficiency of pyrolysis in various kilns as well as efficiency in end-user application, emissions of trace gases, and the relative economics of charcoal and its fuel substitutes. We compare the efficiencies of over thirty kilns with dry weight yield efficiencies ranging from 12 to over 40% along with production volumes up to 13 tonnes. We also discuss the transport and marketing economics for a range of urban African charcoal markets. The analysis of these factors highlights the importance of matching the charcoal production technology, batch size, and marketing to the available resource and the end-user population. This analysis is critical to the design of sensible biomass energy policies at the national and international aid and donor level. 28 14 5 http://rael.berkeley.edu/files/2005/Kammen-Lew-Charcoal-2005.pdf 2005 In this article we conduct an analysis of energy and exergy utilization in the residential sector of Saudi Arabia by considering the sectoral energy and exergy flows for the 12 years between 1990 and 2001. Energy and exergy analyses are undertaken for its four subsectors, namely air conditioning, lighting, cooking appliances and others, and hence the energy and exergy efficiencies are obtained for comparison. From the analysis, the most energy efficient subsector in the residential sector appears to be the air-conditioning subsector and the most exergy efficient one is lighting for all over the years. It is also found that the average overall exergy efficiency in this sector is 9.6% while the corresponding average overall energy efficiency is 76.9%. It is believed that the present technique is a key tool for analyzing sectoral energy and exergy utilization, to help provide energy savings through efficiency and/or conservation measures. It is also helpful to establish standards to facilitate using such tools as part of energy planning. 10.1080/00908310490441566 29 13 Journal of Energy Sources 1239-1252 1 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a714034786~db=all 26 2004 30 This report was prepared by AEA Technology for the World Business Council for Sustainable Development 15 5 http://www.wbcsd.ch/web/projects/cement/tf3/final_report10.pdf 2002 An ultimate limit on the extent that biomass fuels can be used to displace fossil transportation fuels, and their associated emissions of CO2, will be the land area available to produce the fuels and the efficiencies by which solar radiation can be converted to useable fuels. Currently, the Brazil cane-ethanol system captures 33% of the primary energy content in harvested cane in the form of ethanol. The US corn-ethanol system captures 54% of the primary energy of harvested corn kernels in the form of ethanol. If ethanol is used to substitute for gasoline, avoided fossil fuel CO2 emissions would equal those of the substituted amount minus fossil emissions incurred in producing the cane- or corn-ethanol. In this case, avoided emissions are estimated to be 29% of harvested cane and 14% of harvested corn primary energy. Unless these efficiencies are substantially improved, the displacement of CO2 emissions from transportation fuels in the United States is unlikely to reach 10% using domestic biofuels. Candidate technologies for improving these efficiencies include fermentation of cellulosic biomass and conversion of biomass into electricity, hydrogen, or alcohols for use in electric drive-train vehicles. 10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.199 31 Annual Review of Energy and Environment 199-244 1 http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146%2Fannurev.energy.25.1.199 25 2000 When William Shakepeare wrote Love‚Äôs Labour‚Äôs Lost he would have used light from tallow candles at a cost (today) of ¬£12,000 per million-lumen hours. The same amount of light from electric lamps now costs only ¬£2! But today‚Äôs low-cost illumination still has a dark side. Globally, lighting consumes more electricity than is produced by either hydro or nuclear power and results in CO2 emissions equivalent to two thirds of the world‚Äôs cars. A standard incandescent lamp may be much more efficient than a tallow candle, but it is far less efficient than a high-pressure sodium lamp. Were inefficient light sources to be replaced by the equivalent efficient ones, global lighting energy demand would be up to 40% less at a lower overall cost. Larger savings still could be realised through the intelligent use of controls, lighting levels and daylight. But achieving efficient lighting is not just a question of technology; it requires policies to transform current practice. This book documents the broad range of policy measures to stimulate efficient lighting that have already been implemented around the world and suggests new ways these could be strengthened to prevent light‚Äôs labour‚Äôs from being lost. 32 926410951X The listed URL is on Google Books, and contains the entire text. The IEA bookshop page is: http://www.iea.org/w/bookshop/add.aspx?id=302 7 5 International Energy Agency http://books.google.com/books?id=UmBH0oLMyKkC&dq=light's+labour's+lost&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=y3qjODJwNC&sig=812udv5Et90muI-priekXrvvYtk 2006 33 0-521-64569-7 2 Cambridge University Press New York 1998 We have determined the concentrations and isotopic compositions of U, Th and Pb in hydrothermal fluids from 21¬∞N, East Pacific Rise and Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California. The purest hydrothermal end members (96%) have 0.06‚Äì0.18 ppb U, < 0.1‚Äì4.3 ppt Th and 40‚Äì67 ppb Pb. Several samples show a 234U enrichment relative to the equilibrium value. This indicates that U was quantitatively removed from seawater and deposited to the crust during the hydrothermal circulation. The 21¬∞N fluids with intermediate Mg content show that U and Mg are coherently removed from seawater, but Pb is not, during mixing of the hot hydrothermal fluid and cold ambient seawater. Both the end-member and intermediate hydrothermal fluids at 21¬∞N have similar Pb isotopic compositions and limited ranges in Image (18.444‚Äì18.503), 207Pb/204Pb (15.471‚Äì15.514), and 208Pb/204Pb (37.832‚Äì37.966). These ratios are within the range of values of MORB and are distinctly less radiogenic than the ambient seawater. This means that a significant amount of Pb was removed from the basalts by the hot springs. In contrast, Th does not appear to be significantly removed from the basalts. Some of this Pb was incorporated into the metalliferous sediments in a wide area straddling the EPR. The Pb isotopic composition of a hydrothermal sample from the Guaymas Basin is more radiogenic than at 21¬∞N and resembles that of sediments from the Gulf of California. This is consistent with the uptake of Pb from heated sediments having a substantial component of the volcanogenic detritus. Using the present data and the literature values of the natural river fluxes, the global hydrothermal system removes Àú25% U from the total natural U flux to the ocean and contributes < 0.02% Th and Àú2% Pb to the ocean. The U/Pb ratio in the hydrothermally altered oceanic crust may be increased by from 40% to a factor of 2, and the Th/U ratio decreased by from 10 to 25%. The ridge crest-hydrothermal system represents only a part of a continuous geochemical process which modifies the U-Th-Pb systematics of the oceanic upper crust or ultimately the source of some oceanic island basalts. 10.1016/0016-7037(86)90030-X 34 11 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta Pages 2467-2479 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V66-4887T2G-16Y&_user=145269&_coverDate=11%2F30%2F1986&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=1cb4117e041e1d655067ffe4db9d2704 50 1986 35 Wes has: Chang J. Table of Nuclides. Yusung: Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI), 2005. See also: http://sutekh.nd.rl.ac.uk/CoN/ But that link does not work. 28 7 Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ Renewable fresh water comprises a tiny fraction of the global water pool but is the foundation for life in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. The benefits to humans of renewable fresh water include water for drinking, irrigation, and industrial uses, for production of fish and waterfowl, and for such instream uses as recreation, transportation, and waste disposal. In the coming century, climate change and a growing imbalance among freshwater supply, consumption, and population will alter the water cycle dramatically. Many regions of the world are already limited by the amount and quality of available water. In the next 30 yr alone, accessible runoff is unlikely to increase more than 10%, but the earth's population is projected to rise by approximately one-third. Unless the efficiency of water use rises, this imbalance will reduce freshwater ecosystem services, increase the number of aquatic species facing extinction, and further fragment wetlands, rivers, deltas, and estuaries.Based on the scientific evidence currently available, we conclude that: (1) over half of accessible freshwater runoff globally is already appropriated for human use; (2) more than 1 √ó 109 people currently lack access to clean drinking water and almost 3 √ó 109 people lack basic sanitation services; (3) because the human population will grow faster than increases in the amount of accessible fresh water, per capita availability of fresh water will decrease in the coming century; (4) climate change will cause a general intensification of the earth's hydrological cycle in the next 100 yr, with generally increased precipitation, evapotranspiration, and occurrence of storms, and significant changes in biogeochemical processes influencing water quality; (5) at least 90% of total water discharge from U.S. rivers is strongly affected by channel fragmentation from dams, reservoirs, interbasin diversions, and irrigation; and (6) globally, 20% of freshwater fish species are threatened or extinct, and freshwater species make up 47% of all animals federally endangered in the United States. The growing demands on freshwater resources create an urgent need to link research with improved water management. Better monitoring, assessment, and forecasting of water resources will help to allocate water more efficiently among competing needs. Currently in the United States, at least six federal departments and 20 agencies share responsibilities for various aspects of the hydrologic cycle. Coordination by a single panel with members drawn from each department, or by a central agency, would acknowledge the diverse pressures on freshwater systems and could lead to the development of a well-coordinated national plan. 10.1890/1051-0761(2001)011[1027:WIACW]2.0.CO;2 36 4 Ecological Applications 1027-1045 1 http://www.esajournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1890%2F1051-0761(2001)011%5B1027%3AWIACW%5D2.0.CO%3B2 11 2001 from Elsevier's "Encyclopedia of Energy" Cleveland, C. J. 37 3 Elsevier Oxford http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/referenceworks/012176480X 2004 It is generally assumed that oceanic gas hydrates contain a huge volume of natural gases, mainly methane. The most widely cited estimate of global hydrate-bound gas is 21√ó1015 m3 of methane at STP (or not, vert, similar10,000 Gt of methane carbon), which is proposed as a ‚Äúconsensus value‚Äù from several independent estimations. This large gas hydrate reservoir is further suggested as an important component of the global carbon cycle and as a future energy source. Here, I present a revised and updated set of well-justified global estimates and discuss how and why they changed over time. It appears that the global estimates of hydrate-bound gas decreased by at least one order of magnitude from 1970s‚Äìearly 1980s (estimates on the order of 1017‚Äì1018 m3) to late 1980s‚Äìearly 1990s (1016 m3) to late 1990s‚Äìpresent (1014‚Äì1015 m3). The decrease of estimates is a result of growing knowledge of the distribution and concentration of gas hydrates in marine sediments and ongoing efforts to better constrain the volume of hydrate-bearing sediments and their gas yield. These parameters appear to be relatively well constrained at present through DSDP/ODP drilling and direct measurements of gas concentrations in sediments. The global estimate of hydrate-bound gas that best reflects the current knowledge of submarine gas hydrate is in the range (1‚Äì5)√ó1015 m3 (not, vert, similar500‚Äì2500 Gt of methane carbon). A significantly smaller global gas hydrate inventory implies that the role of gas hydrates in the global carbon cycle may not be as significant as speculated previously. Gas hydrate may be considered a future energy source not because the global volume of hydrate-bound gas is large, but because some individual gas hydrate accumulations may contain significant and concentrated resources that may be profitably recovered in the future. 10.1016/j.earscirev.2003.11.002 38 3 Earth-Science Reviews 183-197 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V62-4BMTJ4G-1&_user=145269&_coverDate=08%2F31%2F2004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=c429104a0fff5ddfcf0d31f9bbf26868 66 2004 Phytoplankton biomass in the world's oceans amounts to only bsim1‚Äì2% of the total global plant carbon, yet these organisms fix between 30 and 50 billion metric tons of carbon annually, which is about 40% of the total. On geological time scales there is profound evidence of the importance of phytoplankton photosynthesis in biogeochemical cycles. It is generally assumed that present phytoplankton productivity is in a quasi steady-state (on the time scale of decades). However, in a global context, the stability of oceanic photosynthetic processes is dependent on the physical circulation of the upper ocean and is therefore strongly influenced by the atmosphere. The net flux of atmospheric radiation is critical to determining the depth of the upper mixed layer and the vertical fluxes of nutrients. These latter two parameters are keys to determining the intensity, and spatial and temporal distributions of phytoplankton blooms. Atmospheric radiation budgets are not in steady-state. Driven largely by anthropogenic activities in the 20th century, increased levels of IR- absorbing gases such as CO2, CH4 and CFC's and NOx will potentially increase atmospheric temperatures on a global scale. The atmospheric radiation budget can affect phytoplankton photosynthesis directly and indirectly. Increased temperature differences between the continents and oceans have been implicated in higher wind stresses at the ocean margins. Increased wind speeds can lead to higher nutrient fluxes. Throughout most of the central oceans, nitrate concentrations are sub-micromolar and there is strong evidence that the quantum efficiency of Photosystem II is impaired by nutrient stress. Higher nutrient fluxes would lead to both an increase in phytoplankton biomass and higher biomass-specific rates of carbon fixation. However, in the center of the ocean gyres, increased radiative heating could reduce the vertical flux of nutrients to the euphotic zone, and hence lead to a reduction in phytoplankton carbon fixation. Increased desertification in terrestrial ecosystems can lead to increased aeolean loadings of essential micronutrients, such as iron. An increased flux of aeolean micronutrients could fertilize nutrient-replete areas of the open ocean with limiting trace elements, thereby stimulating photosynthetic rates. The factors which limit phytoplankton biomass and photosynthesis are discussed and examined with regard to potential changes in the Earth climate system which can lead the oceans away from steady-state. While it is difficult to confidently deduce changes in either phytoplankton biomass or photosynthetic rates on decadal time scales, time-series analysis of ocean transparency data suggest long-term trends have occurred in the North Pacific Ocean in the 20th century. However, calculations of net carbon uptake by the oceans resulting from phytoplankton photosynthesis suggest that without a supply of nutrients external to the ocean, carbon fixation in the open ocean is not presently a significant sink for excess atmospheric CO2. 10.1007/BF00014586 39 3 Photosynthesis Research 235-258 1 http://www.springerlink.com/content/h51303155vx501mt/?p=9dd596e9c73043a596a178feeca375a8&pi=2 39 1994 How and where the ocean tides dissipate their energy are long-standing questions1 that have consequences ranging from the history of the Moon2 to the mixing of the oceans3. Historically, the principal sink of tidal energy has been thought to be bottom friction in shallow seas4, 5. There has long been suggestive evidence6, 7, however, that tidal dissipation also occurs in the open ocean through the scattering by ocean-bottom topography of surface tides into internal waves, but estimates of the magnitude of this possible sink have varied widely3, 8, 9, 10, 11. Here we use satellite altimeter data from Topex/Poseidon to map empirically the tidal energy dissipation. We show that approximately 1012 watts‚Äîthat is, 1 TW, representing 25‚Äì30% of the total dissipation‚Äîoccurs in the deep ocean, generally near areas of rough topography. Of the estimated 2 TW of mixing energy required to maintain the large-scale thermohaline circulation of the ocean12, one-half could therefore be provided by the tides, with the other half coming from action13 on the surface of the ocean. 10.1038/35015531 40 6788 Nature 775-558 1 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v405/n6788/abs/405775a0.html 405 2000 This paper examines the accuracy of surface elevations in a forward global numerical model of 10 tidal constituents. Both one-layer and two-layer simulations are performed. As far as the authors are aware, the two-layer simulations and the simulations in a companion paper (Deep-Sea Research II, 51 (2004) 3043) represent the first published global numerical solutions for baroclinic tides. Self-consistent forward solutions for the global tide are achieved with a convergent iteration procedure for the self-attraction and loading term. Energies are too large, and elevation accuracies are poor, unless substantial abyssal drag is present. Reasonably accurate tidal elevations can be obtained with a spatially uniform bulk drag cd or horizontal viscosity KH, but only if these are inordinately large. More plausible schemes concentrate drag over rough topography. The topographic drag scheme used here is based on an exact analytical solution for arbitrary small-amplitude terrain, and supplemented by dimensional analysis to account for drag due to flow-splitting and low-level turbulence as well as that due to breaking of radiating waves. The scheme is augmented by a multiplicative factor tuned to minimize elevation discrepancies with respect to the TOPEX/POSEIDON (T/P)-constrained GOT99.2 model. The multiplicative factor may account for undersampled small spatial scales in bathymetric datasets. An optimally tuned multi-constituent one-layer simulation has an RMS elevation discrepancy of 9.54 cm with respect to GOT99.2, in waters deeper than 1000 m and over latitudes covered by T/P (66ring operatorN to 66ring operatorS). The surface elevation discrepancy decreases to 8.90 cm (92 percent of the height variance captured) in the optimally tuned two-layer solution. The improvement in accuracy is not due to the direct surface elevation signature of internal tides, which is of small amplitude, but to a shift in the barotropic tide induced by baroclinicity. Elevations are also more accurate in the two-layer model when pelagic tide gauges are used as the benchmark, and when the T/P-constrained TPXO6.2 model is used as a benchmark in deep waters south of 66ring operatorS. For Antarctic diurnal tides, the improvement in forward model elevation accuracy with baroclinicity is substantial. The optimal multiplicative factor in the two-layer case is nearly the same as in the one-layer case, against initial expectations that the explicit resolution of low-mode conversion would allow less parameterized drag. In the optimally tuned two-layer M2 solution, local values of the ratio of temporally averaged squared upper layer speed to squared lower layer speed often exceed 10. 10.1016/j.dsr2.2004.09.014 41 26 Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 3069-3101 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VGC-4F02D2W-D&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F01%2F2004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=02c2d2c0fd0bf798f8350958d7a8d871 51 2004 THE rate at which tidal energy is dissipated in the solid Earth can constrain the anelastic properties of the Earth at frequencies much lower than those accessible with seismology. The dissipative properties of a system are usually expressed as a 'quality factor', Q; estimates1‚Äì7 of the semi-diurnal solid-Earth Q range from 90 to 500. But observational constraints on this quantity are difficult to obtain, because dissipation by the body tide is masked by the much greater dissipation that occurs in the oceans8,9. Here we show that recent accurate measurements of the ocean tide obtained by the Topex/Poseidon satellite altimeter10, combined with nearly two decades of laser tracking of satellite orbit perturbations11 (which are sensitive to the total planetary dissipation rate), permit an estimate of the solid-Earth dissipation rate at semi-diurnal period. We find that the body tide lags the principal lunar tidal potential by 0.16plusminus0.09¬∞, implying a dissipation rate of 83plusminus45 gigawatts and a solid-Earth Q of 370 at a period of 12.4 hours. The observed lag agrees well with Zschau's 'most probable' lag1 of 0.21¬∞ (deduced from observations of the Chandler wobble), and favours the higher values of Q estimated theoretically. 10.1038/381595a0 42 6583 Nature 595-597 1 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v381/n6583/abs/381595a0.html 381 1996 We present a new estimate of the Earth‚Äôs heat loss based on a new global compilation of heat flow measurements comprising 24,774 observations at 20,201 sites. On a 5¬∞√ó5¬∞ grid, the observations cover 62% of the Earth‚Äôs surface. Empirical estimators, referenced to geological map units and derived from the observations, enable heat flow to be estimated in areas without measurements. Corrections for the effects of hydrothermal circulation in the oceanic crust compensate for the advected heat undetected in measurements of the conductive heat flux. The mean heat flows of continents and oceans are 65 and 101 mW m‚àí2, respectively, which when areally weighted yield a global mean of 87 mW m‚àí2 and a global heat loss of 44.2√ó1012 W, an increase of some 4‚Äì8% over earlier estimates. More than half of the Earth‚Äôs heat loss comes from Cenozoic oceanic lithosphere. A spherical harmonic analysis of the global heat flow field reveals strong sectoral components and lesser zonal strength. The spectrum principally reflects the geographic distribution of the ocean ridge system. The rate at which the heat flow spectrum loses strength with increasing harmonic degree is similar to the decline in spectral strength exhibited by the Earth‚Äôs topography. The spectra of the gravitational and magnetic fields fall off much more steeply, consistent with field sources in the lower mantel and core, respectively. Families of continental and oceanic conductive geotherms indicate the range of temperatures existing in the lithosphere under various surface heat flow conditions. The heat flow field is very well correlated with the seismic shear wave velocity distribution near the top of the upper mantel. 43 3 Reviews of Geophysics 267-280 1 http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1993.../93RG01249.shtml 31 1993 Natural exergy losses connected with the absorption of solar radiation by the Earth have been calculated. The exergy income caused by the radiation exchange between the Earth and the cosmic space has also been considered. The exergy losses occurring near the Earth‚Äôs surface have been distinguished because they represent the most accessible natural resources of exergy. The term ‚Äònatural losses of utilizable exergy‚Äô has been proposed. These losses have been compared with the anthropogenic ones caused by the activity of humankind. The positive impact of the natural exergy losses has been pointed out: they were a main cause of the formation of the terrestrial natural environment, of the non-renewable natural resources of fuels, and of the generation of stable dissipative structures in form of living beings. 10.1016/S0360-5442(03)00089-6 44 11 Energy 1047-1054 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V2S-48SBVBS-2&_user=10&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2003&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=eb7145ef4d3a34a2a142e75a99797276 28 2003 45 0883187124 16 2 Springer-Verlag New York http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=3tjKa0YzFRMC&oi=fnd&pg=PR17&dq=peixoto+oort&ots=xTDiyBNEIJ&sig=OtXBxPyIDY8Yxx-oaLQYde_u6hw 1992 A global climatology of mean monthly precipitation was developed using traditional land-based gauge measurements and shipboard estimates. The edited database contains 24,635 spatially independent terrestrial station records and 223 oceanic grid-point records. Corrected monthly precipitation observations were then interpolated to a 0.5 degree of latitude by 0.5 degree of longitude grid using a spherically based interpolation procedure. Precipitation is heaviest in the low latitudes and generally decreases toward the poles. Average intra-annual variability is positively correlated with average annual precipitation. Harmonic analysis depicted the marked effect that the seasonal migration of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone has on the timing of precipitation in equatorial regions. A double-maxima regime characterizes the seasonal precipitation cycle between the equator and about 10 degrees N, while heavy unimodal precipitation dominates the subtropics north and south of this region. Mid-latitude precipitation is generally less than in the tropics and is usually heavier over the oceans than over land. Rain gauge errors tend to be directly proportional to total precipitation, and amount to nearly 11% of the global catch. An undercatch of less than 5% occurs in the tropics, while > 40% is common at the poles. This illustrates the sizable influence of wind on gauge measurements of snowfall. Annual average global precipitation is approximately 1123 mm (gauge corrections considered), which is consistent with other reported values 10.1002/joc.3370100202 46 2 International Journal of Climatology Wes has the following URL listed. It is now broken: http://daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/DATASET_DOCS/legates_rain_gauge_dataset.html it also lists 2005 as the data year, which may mean that there is recent data associated with the methods in the paper. 18 111-127 1 http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/113491383/ABSTRACT 10 1990 Without deep mixing, the ocean would turn, within a few thousand years, into a stagnant pool of cold salty water with equilibrium maintained locally by near-surface mixing and with very weak convectively driven surface-intensified circulation. (This result follows from Sandstr√ɬ∂m's theorem for a fluid heated and cooled at the surface.) In this context we revisit the 1966 √¢‚Ǩ≈ìAbyssal Recipes√¢‚Ǩ¬ù, which called for a diapycnal diffusivity of 10√¢ÀÜ‚Äô4 m2/s (1 cgs) to maintain the abyssal stratification against global upwelling associated with 25 Sverdrups of deep water formation. Subsequent microstructure measurements gave a pelagic diffusivity (away from topography) of 10√¢ÀÜ‚Äô5 m2/s -- a low value confirmed by dye release experiments. A new solution (without restriction to constant coefficients) leads to approximately the same values of global upwelling and diffusivity, but we reinterpret the computed diffusivity as a surrogate for a small number of concentrated sources of buoyancy flux (regions of intense mixing) from which the water masses (but not the turbulence) are exported into the ocean interior. Using the Levitus climatology we find that 2.1 TW (terawatts) are required to maintain the global abyssal density distribution against 30 Sverdrups of deep water formation. The winds and tides are the only possible source of mechanical energy to drive the interior mixing. Tidal dissipation is known from astronomy to equal 3.7 TW (2.50 √Ǭ± 0.05 TW from M2 alone), but nearly all of this has traditionally been allocated to dissipation in the turbulent bottom boundary layers of marginal seas. However, two recent TOPEX/POSEIDON altimetric estimates combined with dynamical models suggest that 0.6-0.9 TW may be available for abyssal mixing. A recent estimate of wind-driving suggests 1 TW of additional mixing power. All values are very uncertain. A supprising conclusion is that the equator-to-pole heat flux of 2000 TW associated with the meridional overturning circulation would not exist without the comparatively minute mechanical mixing sources. Coupled with the findings that mixing occurs at a few dominant sites, there is a host of questions concerning the maintenance of the present climate state, but also that of paleoclimates and their relation to detailed continental configurations, the history of the Earth-Moon system, and a possible great sensitivity to details of the wind system. 10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00070-3 47 12 Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 1977-2010 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VGB-3VTY6CC-1&_user=145269&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1998&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=557a439b724b2a23ed567d28930c6f30 45 1998 Wind energy input into the ocean is primarily produced through surface waves. The total rate of this energy source, integrated over the World Ocean, is estimated at 60 TW, based on empirical formulas and results from a numerical model of surface waves. Thus, surface wave energy input is about 50 times the energy input to the surface geostrophic current and 20 times the total tidal dissipation rate. Most of the energy input is concentrated within the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. 10.1175/1520-0485(2004)034<1276:WEITTS>2.0.CO;2 48 5 Journal of Physical Oceanography 1276‚Äì1280 1 http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1175%2F1520-0485%282004%29034%3C1276%3AWEITTS%3E2.0.CO%3B2 34 2004 Over the past 20 years we have accumulated a database for more than 1500 rivers, which collectively represent more than 85 percent of the total land area draining into the oceans. As such, this unique database affords us a unique opportunity to quantify and assess fluvial fluxes to the oceans from both regional and global perspectives. At present rivers discharge approximately 35,000 km3 of freshwater to the global ocean; another 3000 km3/yr are assumed to be contained in reservoirs behind dams. Subtracting this total from meteorologic runoff (precipitation minus evaporation: 39,700 km3/yr), groundwater flux to the global ocean would be 2000 km3/yr. By virtue of high meteorologic runoff, monsoonal climate, and large cumulative drainage area, the rivers draining southeast Asia and the high-standing islands of Oceania (including New Zealand, Indonesia and the Philippines) collectively contribute about 30% of the global freshwater flux, with northeastern South America (primarily the Amazon and Orinoco rivers) discharging another 25%. Suspended sediment discharge to the oceans is much more difficult to estimate, since the sediment load for any river depends on a number of highly variable factors, such as basin area, topography, climate, geology, landuse, etc. Tropical and sub-tropical rivers are particularly susceptible to high rates of erosion due since they drain high-standing, geologically young mountains, are influenced by a monsoonal climate, and their often small basin areas mean that they are more responsive to periodic events and that relatively little sediment is stored along their river courses. A first-order estimate indicates that rivers draining southern Asia and Oceania account for at least 75% of the sediment discharged annually to the oceans (estimated to be about 18.6 x 109 t/yr). Climate and the geological framework of the drainage basin also play important roles in determining dissolved sediment flux. While south Asia accounts for about 35 percent of the 3.9 x 109 t/yr discharged annually, Europe and eastern North America rivers collectively play much greater global roles than they do for either water or suspended solid discharge, contributing about 25 percent of the global dissolved flux. Regional differences in global fluxes of various dissolved species are particularly interesting. For instance, utilizing the extensive data base by Meybeck and Ragu (1996), the major fluvial source for Cl-1 flux to the global ocean is the rivers draining northern and southern Europe, with south Asian, eastern North American, the Eurasian Arctic and west African rivers also having relatively large inputs. We assume that this large Cl- flux mostly reflects drainage from large Paleozoic evaporitic sequences, but at least some of these elevated levels (the Weser River, for instance, has a salinity of about 2 psu!) may be anthropogenically induced. In contrast, the flux of dissolved silica to the global ocean reflects regional variations in SiO2 concentrations, which are largely controlled by climate and the nature of the eroded substrate. High-latitude rivers generally have low to very low SiO2 concentrations (1-3 ppm) compared to tropical rivers, which locally display concentrations greater than 30 ppm. As a result, south Asian rivers discharge about 40 percent of the 330 x 106 t/yr dissolved silica to the global ocean, and northeastern South American rivers account for another 20 percent. In contrast, Arctic rivers contribute only about 5 percent of the global total. One problem in assessing the significance of regional and global trends is that river discharge continually changes in response to both natural and anthropogenic perturbations: long-term variation in rainfall patterns, short-term El-Nino-induced droughts or floods, and human-engineered changes in river flow and drainage patterns. At present nearly all temperate and many high-latitude rivers have been totally or partially dammed or diverted, but many smaller tropical rivers in southeastern Asia and northern South America remain relatively free-flowing. On the other hand, hundreds (and often thousands) of years of poor agricultural practices have resulted in elevated suspended and dissolved sediment loads for south Asian and Oceania rivers, and accelerated deforestation in these regions undoubtedly will lead to even greater short-term fluxes. Given the obvious importance of low-latitude rivers in global fluxes, it is particularly essential that we document and understand these rivers as well as predicting what future changes may bring to them, the seas into which they flow, and perhaps the global ocean. International Workshop on the Global Silica Cycle, Link√∂ping, Sweden, October 3-5, 1999 49 This reference is an abstract only. The conference resulted in an eventual book publication: The SILICON CYCLE: Human Perturbations and Impacts on Aquatic Systems (SCOPE 66) ISBN: 1-59726-115-7 Island Press However, the paper presented does not appear to have resulted in its own chapter. As of July 6, 2007, inclusion of this matarial in printed or reviewed form has not been verified. The Stanford Library DOES have a copy of SCOPE 66 in Falconer... Call No: QH344 .S55 2006 4 http://data.ecology.su.se/scopesi/fluvdisch.htm 1999 From the title page: This guide was prepared by the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) and Tom Michelussi, Altus Environmental Engineering Ltd." 50 20 5 http://www.capp.ca/raw.asp?x=1&dt=PDF&dn=55904 2003 This paper has been written by David Picard (Clearstone Engineering Ltd.). Several reviewers made valuable comments on draft versions of this paper, including Art Jaques (Environment Canada), Gary Webster (Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers), Bob Lott (Gas Research Institute), Marc Darras (Gaz de France), Jasmine Urisk (GRI Canada) and Katarina Mareckova and Thomas Martinsen (IPCC/OECD/IEA Inventories Programme). 51 This is a subchapter of a much larger report Full table of contents is here: http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/english/ 21 5 IPCC National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme Kanagawa http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/bgp/2_6_Fugitive_Emissions_from_Oil_and_Natural_Gas.pdf 2000 52 The current full report is available in sections here:http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport.html 9 5 http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/downloads06/06_Annex_Chapter5.pdf 2006 53 This appears to just be a web reference. The Australian Uranium Association produces it. 22 6 Melbourne http://www.uic.com.au/nip65.htm 2004 Development of a bio-plastics industry in Australia has potential to benefit the environment and Australian agriculture by creating new markets for existing and new crops and increased competition at the farm-gate. Bio-plastics might also benefit the Australian plastics industry a lot more than it currently thinks it would! The worldwide interest in renewable resources, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and more efficient and effective management of waste has created renewed interest in bio-plastics. The immediate problem for Australia is the bio-plastics industry doesn‚Äôt exist here. But the raw materials, plant breeding expertise, molecular scientists and biochemists are here to develop one. And there are over 2,000 synthetic plastic resin converters operating here. A systematic and coordinated industry development program, with significant investments in resin plants and strategic research is required. 11th Australian Agronomy Conference, Australian Society of Agronomy 54 4 http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2003/c/11/michael.htm 55 92 64 01 51 24 The entire book is available free on the IEA website. ISBN taken from the last page. 7 2 IEA Paris http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2004/biofuels2004.pdf 2004 A new system combining fossil fuel and renewable energy to produce methanol (environmentally benign) with a zero CO2 emission process was studied. The objectives of this paper are to propose a practical process for the new system, to prove the zero CO2 emission process for this new system using a system evaluation simulator, and to provide an economical evaluation. The system combining the electrolysis of water (producing both O2 and H2) using solar energy with the partial oxidation of coal and natural gas (Case 1) gives the best evaluation for CO2 reduction and for energy conversion efficiency to upgrade the fossil fuel energy using solar energy. An economical evaluation shows that the product (methanol) cost is nearly the same as that for the conventional (commercial) methanol production process (29.5 yen/kg methanol) when the CO2 recovery and disposal process is taken into account. 10.1016/j.energy.2004.08.021 56 11 Energy 2179-2185 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V2S-4DS6RXK-3&_user=145269&_coverDate=08%2F01%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=1b5dd3fd5fa83a7be749d563cb1420df 30 2005 Available methods for estimating chemical energies and exergies of fuels are described and the results compared. One of the procedures is recommended for practical application in improved form. 10.1016/0360-5442(94)00067-D 57 3 Energy 235-242 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V2S-3YCDWFX-3B&_user=145269&_coverDate=03%2F31%2F1995&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=03cf17869f80a32cc3e6d37ab630e66e 20 1995 Formulas for estimating the specific chemical en-thalpy, b.beta¬∞ and the specific chemical exergy, b.epsi ¬∞, of a structurally complicated material have been developed by adopting the concepts of the dead (or reference) state and the additivity of the properties of constituents in the material. These formulas contain terms for the specific chemical enthalpies and exergies of nine elements, namely, C, H, O, N, S, F, CI, Br, and I. The formulas can estimate with sufficient accuracy the specific chemical enthalpies and exergies of solid fuel, liquid fuel, biomass, and waste material, and are useful for analyses and syntheses of energy resources conversion processes based on the first and second laws of thermodynamics. 10.1080/00908318208946020 58 1 Energy Sources Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects 1 - 46 1 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content?content=10.1080/00908318208946020 6 1982 In the present paper a theoretical study is presented on the dissolution (reaction) of pulverised powder coal fly ash. A shrinking core model is derived for hollow spheres that contain two regions (outer hull and inner region). The resulting analytical equations are applied to the dissolution experiments by Pietersen (Mat.Res.Soc.Symp.Proc., Vol. 178, Materials Research Society, 1990, p. 139; Ph.D. Thesis, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, 1993), yielding reaction rates at various temperatures and pH for two class F fly ashes. It is revealed that the available amount of reactive fly ash is proportional to the glass content of the fly ash, and that the reaction rate is proportional to this glass content as well. Moreover, it is concluded that the outer region is less reactive than the inner region, and that these reactivities are proportional to a power of the hydroxyl concentration. Subsequently, experimental data and model are used to assess the magnitude of inner and outer region. It seems that the outer hull of solid spheres and cenospheres are having the same thickness, about 2 mgrm. Based on the observed trends a reaction mechanism is proposed which accounts for the glass content and composition of the fly ash (and that is applicable to slags as well). Finally, using the reaction product, thermodynamic properties of the studied fly ashes are derived: the free energy, enthalpy and entropy of reaction. 10.1023/A:1015206305942 59 10 Journal of Materials Science 2129-2141 1 http://www.springerlink.com/content/ve3uqb93wy0qdb6b/ 37 2002 An exergy analysis based on the second law of thermodynamics is performed to evaluate the plant and subsystem irreversibility of a nuclear power plant (NPP) with a pressurized-water reactor (PWR). The construction of such a system having a maximum reactor core thermal power of 4250 MW is proposed in Turkey and China. This study concentrates on the questions of where and how much of the available work is lost in such a plant. The evaluated exergy destruction of this plant indicates that the reactor pressure vessel including PWR is the most inefficient equipment in the whole NPP, while the turbines take the second place. 10.1016/S0306-2619(00)00071-4 60 1 Applied Energy 39-57 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V1T-42R6PNK-4&_user=145269&_coverDate=05%2F31%2F2001&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=902222245a26a32a1829416d91fbcc29 69 2001 Original is in German 61 9 Brennstoff-Warme-Kraft 429-434 1 22 1970 This paper presents a complete list of ‚Äúmass excesses‚Äù, which is an update of the similar values in the 1993 Atomic Mass Evaluation, and a list of the isomeric transition energies which are best determined from a combination of masses. A list of new or revised experimental data for mass determination is also given. The significance of these data, and their possible deviation from earlier ones or from expectations are discussed. Adopted new procedures and policies are presented. 10.1016/0375-9474(95)00445-9 62 4 Nuclear Physics A 409-480 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TVB-3YYTR61-1&_user=145269&_coverDate=12%2F25%2F1995&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=c7b44aeadf7af6516d7b0b58bbace5b7 595 1995 Except for 1H, 2H, 3He, 4He, and 7Li, originating from the Big Bang, all heavier elements are made in stellar evolution and stellar explosions. Nuclear physics, and in many cases nuclear structure far from stability, enters in a crucial way. Therefore, we examine in this review the role of nuclear physics in astrophysics in general and in particular how it affects stellar events and the resulting nucleosynthesis. Stellar modeling addresses four major aspects: 1. energy generation and nucleosynthesis, 2. energy transport via conduction, radiation or possibly convection, 3. hydrodynamics/hydrostatics, and finally 4. thermodynamic properties of the matter involved. Nuclear Physics enters via nuclear reaction cross sections and nuclear structure (affecting the composition changes and nuclear energy generation), neutrino-nucleon and neutrino-nucleus cross sections (affecting neutrino opacities and transport), and e.g. the equation of state at and beyond nuclear densities which creates a relation between the nuclear many body problem and and hydrodynamic response like pressure and entropy. In the following we review these four topics by highlighting the role and impact of nuclear physics in each of these aspects of stellar modeling. The main emphasis is put on the connection to element synthesis. 10.1016/S0146-6410(01)00103-X 63 1 Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics More Authors: K. Langanke K. Nomoto S. Rosswog H. Schatz W. Wiescher 5-22 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TJC-4326C6W-2&_user=145269&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2001&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=a6a748df043162f7dd5a2d8135741aa7 46 4001 In the field of solar engineering the practical performance of solar energy conversion devices is generally evaluated strictly on an energy (first law) basis. However, the second law of thermodynamics determines the maximum work potential or exergy content of radiative fluxes independent of any conceptual device. The work in this paper quantifies the effect of directional and spectral distribution of terrestrial solar radiation (SR) on its exergy content. This is particularly important as the thermodynamic character of terrestrial SR is very different from that of blackbody radiation (BR). Exergetic (second law) efficiencies compare the work output of a device to the exergy content of the radiative source flux rather than its energy flux. As a result, exergetic efficiencies reveal that the performance of devices in practice is always better than what is indicated by the corresponding energy efficiency. The results presented in this paper introduce the benefits of using exergy analysis for solar cell design, performance evaluation and optimization. 10.1115/1.1636796 64 1 Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 673-676 1 http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JSEEDO000126000001000673000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes 126 2004 In general the field of exergy analysis is both well formulated and well understood. However, the exergy flux, or maximum work obtainable, from thermal radiation (TR) heat transfer has not been clearly formulated. In a previous article it was shown that Petela's result, from his thermodynamic approach, does in fact represent the exergy flux of blackbody radiation (BR) and the upper limit to the conversion of solar radiation (SR) fluxes approximated as BR. This conclusion was obtained by resolving a number of fundamental issues including questions relating to: inherent irreversibility, definition of the environment, the effect of inherent emission and the effect of concentrating source radiation. In this paper, a new expression based on inherent irreversibility is presented for the exergy flux of TR with an arbitrary spectrum. It is shown that previous approaches by Petela and Karlsson are equivalent and assume that reversible conversion of non-blackbody radiation (NBR) is theoretically possible. However, evidence is presented indicating that the conversion of NBR is inherently irreversible. The analysis in this paper emphasizes the proper formulation for TR exergy by re-stating the general exergy balance equation for thermodynamic systems so that it correctly applies to NBR heat transfer. Finally, it is shown that the exergy flux of NBR, or the maximum work obtainable from NBR conversion, can be a small fraction of the energy flux. 10.1016/S1164-0235(01)00041-3 65 2 Exergy, An International Journal" 69-77 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6W8F-45JKM5D-1&_user=145269&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2002&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=5f9ba232240afa1a7d05cc48f4679d77 2 2002 Reference states crucially determine the availability of all systems. This paper examines the necessary conditions imposed on any definition of reference states by thermodynamic theory, and stresses the requirement of the reference system to be in internal equilibrium. The degree of determination of the reference system necessary for availability balances is discussed. The reference systems in current use are reviewed, and it is shown that they are not suitable to give an accurate value of the chemical contribution to a system's availability. To include the chemical contribution in a consistent way, the author proposes an equilibrium system formed by the atmosphere, the oceans, and a layer of the solid crust of the earth to define a reference state. There is a surprising implication concerning the availability of oxygen, which is discussed. 10.1016/0360-5442(80)90087-0 66 8 Energy 666-677 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V2S-498M5FG-C0&_user=145269&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F1980&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=30e8cc253ee472518cdc9382089fd51d 5 1980 67 0891165746 2 Hemisphere New York 1988 68 The reference appears to come from only the material on the introductory web pages. However, it is possible that Wes did some analysis on the data that is available through the portal that is associated with the satellite data from which the web page was developed 19 6 http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/erbe/ASDerbe.html 2004 An important parameter in the analysis provided by the second law of thermodynamics for the evaluation of solar energy conversion systems is the radiation temperature.^The solar radiation is diluted due to atmospheric scattering and absorption, and reflection at the absorber surface.^This dilution reduces the temperature of the sun (as a blackbody source) to an effective radiation temperature.^In the presented study, spectral dilution functions were derived for three components of the absorbed global terrestrial solar radiation (direct beam component + forward Mie component + diffuse component).^The energy and entropy fluxes and effective temperature for each component were expressed in terms of these dilution functions.^They were calculated for different atmospheric conditions using numerical integration over the wavelength.^The effects of the air mass and the atmospheric parameters on these thermodynamic quantities and the maximum conversion efficiency of solar energy were investigated.^An apparent temperature assigned for the sun as a high temperature reservoir for Carnot engine was calculated and found to vary between about 3600 K for clear sky and about 2000 K for highly turbid sky under the given atmospheric conditions. 69 2 Journal of Solar Energy Engineering Was not able to find DOI or working URL other than this description: http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=6013521 140-145 1 112 1990 As wind energy receives increasing attention it is important to understand the noneconomic factors limiting the total power that can be extracted from the wind. These factors are examined here with a macroscopic approach. An upper global limit of 1.3 x 1014 watts is arrived at with a sublimit of 2 x 1012 watts for the continental United States. Some general conclusions are also reached regarding the sites that would have to be utilized to achieve these levels. Even within these limits, wind energy is seen to offer a potential far larger than many other self-renewing energy sources. 10.1126/science.204.4388.13 70 4388 13 - 17 1 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/204/4388/13 204 1979 71 27 7 NOAA NGDC Boulder http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/globe.html 2005 Global freshwater assessments have not addressed the linkages among water vapor flows, agricultural food production, and terrestrial ecosystem services. We perform the first bottom-up estimate of continental water vapor flows, subdivided into the major terrestrial biomes, and arrive at a total continental water vapor flow of 70,000 km3/yr (ranging from 56,000 to 84,000 km3/yr). Of this flow, 90% is attributed to forests, including woodlands (40,000 km3/yr), wetlands (1400 km3/yr), grasslands (15,100 km3/yr), and croplands (6800 km3/yr). These terrestrial biomes sustain society with essential welfare-supporting ecosystem services, including food production. By analyzing the freshwater requirements of an increasing demand for food in the year 2025, we discover a critical trade-off between flows of water vapor for food production and for other welfare-supporting ecosystem services. To reduce the risk of unintentional welfare losses, this trade-off must become embedded in intentional ecohydrological landscape management. 72 2 Conservation Ecology 1 http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol3/iss2/art5/ 3 1999 74 1 Scientific American 54-65 1 http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/salton/TheSalinityofRivers.html 245 1981 75 0521644976 2 Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1999 77 8 Current Science 932-934 1 http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/oct252002/932.pdf 83 2002 78 90 5411 1054 The document itself could not be found. 24 5 1993 Exergy analysis of a 12.4 MW existing binary geothermal power plant is performed using actual plant data to assess the plant performance and pinpoint sites of primary exergy destruction. Exergy destruction throughout the plant is quantified and illustrated using an exergy flow diagram, and compared to the energy flow diagram. The causes of exergy destruction in the plant include the exergy of the working fluid lost in the condenser, the exergy of the brine reinjected, the turbine-pump losses, and the preheater‚Äìvaporizer losses. The exergy destruction at these sites accounts for 22.6, 14.8, 13.9, and 13.0% of the total exergy input to the plant, respectively. Exergetic efficiencies of major plant components are determined in an attempt to assess their individual performances. The exergetic efficiency of the plant is determined to be 29.1% based on the exergy of the geothermal fluid at the vaporizer inlet, and 34.2% based on the exergy drop of the brine across the vaporizer‚Äìpreheater system (i.e. exergy input to the Rankine cycle). For comparison, the corresponding thermal efficiencies for the plant are calculated to be 5.8 and 8.9%, respectively. 10.1016/S0375-6505(02)00032-9 79 6 Geothermics 709-724 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VCN-4700KD5-6&_user=145269&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2002&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=8b6a56c8950c296090ec3bd65482beae 31 2002 Respiratory water loss was measured at rest and during exercise in normal subjects, patients with chronic airway obstruction, and patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. Whereas in all three groups the average concentration of water in the expired gas was 29 mg/liter, the calculated respiratory evaporative heat loss, expressed as a fraction of total body heat production, tended to be higher in the patients with lung disease during exercise, This observation was best explained by the high ratio of exercise ventilation to oxygen consumption which occurred in half the patients. The same mechanism probably accounted for the larger than normal total respiratory heat loss (hT) seen in the patients, when hT was defined as the sum of four components of heat exchange: I) the evaporative loss; 2) the convective loss; 3) the loss due to the endothermic evolution of carbon dioxide; and 4) the gain resulting from the exothermic combination of oxygen with blood. These results indicate that lung disease does not interfere with the warming and humidification of respired air. Rather they demonstrate that the fraction of body heat dissipated via the respiratory tract may be higher in patients with lung disease. 80 1 Journal of Applied Physiology 82-88 1 http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/reprint/26/1/82.pdf 26 1969 Four processes for small-scale liquefied natural gas (LNG) production are evaluated. These include a single-stage mixed refrigerant (SMR), a two-stage expander nitrogen refrigerant and two open-loop expander processes. Steady-state simulations were undertaken to ensure that each process was compared on an identical basis, was fully optimised and was in agreement with published results. Composite curves for the feed and recycle streams and the refrigerant or cold recycle stream showed the degree of optimisation available within each process. The full exergy analysis showed the relative contributions to the total shaft work requirements, with the lowest being the SMR process. The lower efficiency of the expander-driven compressors is the main difference between processes. A more general comparison suggested that the nitrogen refrigerant process and the New LNG open-loop process are the leading candidates for offshore compact LNG production. 10.1016/j.energy.2005.09.005 81 12 Energy 2005-2019 1 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V2S-4HH819X-4&_user=145269&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2006&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000012078&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=145269&md5=ab78c6219f11bdbe1901098889686be7 31 2006 82 25 5 http://petroleum.berkeley.edu/papers/Biofuels/NERLReport.pdf 1998 QE1 .I16 1996 V.2 P.443-896 30th International Geological Congress, Beijing 83 Information appears to come only from the abstract. 4 1996 84 0309030765 26 2 National Academy Press Washington, D.C. 1980 After three consecutive seasons with U.S. cotton production over 21 million bales, stocks rose considerably leading up to the 2007 season. In 2007, higher expected net returns offered from some competing crops helped cut cotton area nearly 30 percent. However, growing conditions were generally favorable over most of the Cotton Belt and pushed the national yield to a record, resulting in only a moderate production decline from 2006. Nevertheless, U.S. cotton demand in 2007/08 is forecast to exceed production and therefore reduce stocks by seasonís end. World cotton mill use is projected to reach new heights in 2007/08 and exceed production. As a result, 2007/08 global ending stocks are expected to decline to their lowest level in 4 years. NULL 85 According to the website, http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/Cotton/ , cotton represents about 40% of worldwide fiber production (and use). However, since the remaining 60% is mostly synthetic fiber, we can assume that worldwide organic fiber production is approximately equivalent to worldwide cotton production. Wool usage represents about 1% of total fiber. From the Front Matter: Approved by the World Agricultural Outlook Board. Summary released November 21, 2007. Summaries and full text of Situation and Outlook reports may be accessed electronically via the ERS Website at www.ers.usda.gov. To order, call 1-800-999-6778 in the United States or Canada. Other areas please call (703) 605-6220. Or write ERS-NASS, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161. 29 5 http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/current/CWS-yearbook/CWS-yearbook-12-10-2007.pdf 2007